Harry Potter Essays -- essays research papers

Harry Potter and The Sorcerers Stone   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The book I read was called Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s stone. The author of this book was a woman by the name of J.K. Rowling. This book has two settings, in the beginning, when Harry is living with his Uncle Vernon and Aunt Petunia; he is at # 4 privet drive. After he is sent off to Hogwarts, the setting is at the gigantic school for wizards and witches.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main character in the book I read was Harry Potter. He is rather skinny, has dark brown hair and bight green eyes and glasses. He also has a scar in the middle of his forehead in the shape of a lightning bolt. Ron Weasly, Harry’s friend, has red hair and brown eyes big lips and is slightly larger than Harry, especially in the middle. Hermonie Granger is another friend of Harry’s; she has long light brown hair that is a little poofy. She has dark brown eyes and thick eyebrows. In the beginning, Harry was dropped off at his aunt’s and uncle’s by a giant and a warlock. He had 12 long years of being beat up by his spoiled cousin and his gang. One day, letters came down the chimney, shaking the whole house. This caused his uncle to propose a vacation. When they got to their destination, Harry remembered that it was his birthday. That night, Harry drew a cake in the sand on the floor and watched the clock strike midnight. Then a giant pushed down the door. The giant had an argument with Harry’s uncle about whether or not ...

Relationship Between Strings and Spacetime Geometry :: essays research papers

If string theory is a theory of gravity, then how does it compare with Einstein's theory of gravity? What is the relationship between strings and spacetime geometry? Strings and gravitons The simplest case to imagine is a single string traveling in a flat spacetime in d dimensions, meaning that it is traveling across space while time is ticking, so to speak. A string is a one-dimensional object, meaning that if you want to travel along a string, you can only go forwards or backwards in the direction of the string, there is no sideways or up and down on a string. The string can move sideways or up and down in spacetime, though, and as the string moves around in spacetime, it sweeps out a surface in spacetime called the string worldsheet, a two-dimensional surface with one dimension of space and one dimension of time. The string worldsheet is the key to all the physics of the string. A string oscillates as it travels through the d-dimensional spacetime. Those oscillations can be viewed from the two-dimensional string worldsheet point of view as oscillations in a two-dimensional quantum gravity theory. In order to make those quantized oscillations consistent with quantum mechanics and special relativity, the number of spacetime dimensions has to be restricted to 26 in the case of a theory with only forces (bosons), and 10 dimensions if there are both forces and matter (bosons and fermions) in the particle spectrum of the theory. So where does gravity come in? If the string traveling through spacetime is a closed string, then the spectrum of oscillations includes a particle with 2 units of spin and zero mass, with the right type of interactions to be the graviton, the particle that is the carrier of the gravitational force. Where there are gravitons, then there must be gravity. Where is the gravity in string theory? Strings and spacetime geometry The classical theory of spacetime geometry that we call gravity consists of the Einstein equation, which relates the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy in spacetime. But how do the Einstein equations come out of string theory? If a closed string is traveling in a curved spacetime, then the coordinates of the string in spacetime feel this curvature as the string propagates. Relationship Between Strings and Spacetime Geometry :: essays research papers If string theory is a theory of gravity, then how does it compare with Einstein's theory of gravity? What is the relationship between strings and spacetime geometry? Strings and gravitons The simplest case to imagine is a single string traveling in a flat spacetime in d dimensions, meaning that it is traveling across space while time is ticking, so to speak. A string is a one-dimensional object, meaning that if you want to travel along a string, you can only go forwards or backwards in the direction of the string, there is no sideways or up and down on a string. The string can move sideways or up and down in spacetime, though, and as the string moves around in spacetime, it sweeps out a surface in spacetime called the string worldsheet, a two-dimensional surface with one dimension of space and one dimension of time. The string worldsheet is the key to all the physics of the string. A string oscillates as it travels through the d-dimensional spacetime. Those oscillations can be viewed from the two-dimensional string worldsheet point of view as oscillations in a two-dimensional quantum gravity theory. In order to make those quantized oscillations consistent with quantum mechanics and special relativity, the number of spacetime dimensions has to be restricted to 26 in the case of a theory with only forces (bosons), and 10 dimensions if there are both forces and matter (bosons and fermions) in the particle spectrum of the theory. So where does gravity come in? If the string traveling through spacetime is a closed string, then the spectrum of oscillations includes a particle with 2 units of spin and zero mass, with the right type of interactions to be the graviton, the particle that is the carrier of the gravitational force. Where there are gravitons, then there must be gravity. Where is the gravity in string theory? Strings and spacetime geometry The classical theory of spacetime geometry that we call gravity consists of the Einstein equation, which relates the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy in spacetime. But how do the Einstein equations come out of string theory? If a closed string is traveling in a curved spacetime, then the coordinates of the string in spacetime feel this curvature as the string propagates.

Cuzco Enterprises/ business plan :: essays research papers

CUZCO ENTERPRISES CORP CUZCO CASUAL WEAR # 2 2357 w Diversy Ave Chicago IL 60639 (773) 255-1393 Fax (773) 448-6779 Www.faustocuzco.com/ecuador.html Executive Summary By focusing on its heritage and the strength and experience CUZCO CASUAL WEAR # 2 will continue to enhance their quality, uniqueness, and valuable customer service. o This business plan leads the way. It renews our vision and strategic focus on the quality and value we put in our products and the market segment originally targeted. Our vision has been broadened by the success we have found in the marketplace, to the extent of adding new products and current plans on additional items and services. It has given us a step-by-step plan to meet and exceed our goals for increased sales, gross margin, and profitability. o This plan includes this summary, and chapters on the company, products and services, market focus, action plans and forecasts, management team, and financial plan. Objectives 1. Increase sales to more than $100,000 over the next three years. 2. Move gross margin to above 55% over the current merchandise line and maintain that level. 3. Add new products such tailoring service, a leather jacket section, and sport wear section. 4. Improve inventory turnover, reduce the cost of goods sold while maintaining the high quality of our products 5. To provide jobs to the Hispanic community that are rewarding and fulfilling. Business Description Mission: I am Fausto Cuzco Entrepreneur owner of Cuzco Enterprises Corp. We are here to provide you with high quality merchandise products, fast service and the most important goal in our enterprising is your " satisfaction" Industry back ground Cuzco Enterprises Corp was created in February 2002 by a 29 year old novice young man named Fausto Cuzco. Under this parent name, he opened his first store in a small mall in south side Chicago, CUZCO CASUAL WEAR #1. Currently my friend Patricia and I own this store. Sales have been growing steadily with the cost of goods sold consistently decreasing. But to make significant headway in this area, we need to expand our business into new territories. Goals and potential of the new venture Constantly striving to supply what the consumer is asking for, we continually review what is available in the marketplace, and what isn't. Improving on what is available and providing new products and services to the areas of need will assure our success in a market driven by consumer demand. Cuzco Enterprises/ business plan :: essays research papers CUZCO ENTERPRISES CORP CUZCO CASUAL WEAR # 2 2357 w Diversy Ave Chicago IL 60639 (773) 255-1393 Fax (773) 448-6779 Www.faustocuzco.com/ecuador.html Executive Summary By focusing on its heritage and the strength and experience CUZCO CASUAL WEAR # 2 will continue to enhance their quality, uniqueness, and valuable customer service. o This business plan leads the way. It renews our vision and strategic focus on the quality and value we put in our products and the market segment originally targeted. Our vision has been broadened by the success we have found in the marketplace, to the extent of adding new products and current plans on additional items and services. It has given us a step-by-step plan to meet and exceed our goals for increased sales, gross margin, and profitability. o This plan includes this summary, and chapters on the company, products and services, market focus, action plans and forecasts, management team, and financial plan. Objectives 1. Increase sales to more than $100,000 over the next three years. 2. Move gross margin to above 55% over the current merchandise line and maintain that level. 3. Add new products such tailoring service, a leather jacket section, and sport wear section. 4. Improve inventory turnover, reduce the cost of goods sold while maintaining the high quality of our products 5. To provide jobs to the Hispanic community that are rewarding and fulfilling. Business Description Mission: I am Fausto Cuzco Entrepreneur owner of Cuzco Enterprises Corp. We are here to provide you with high quality merchandise products, fast service and the most important goal in our enterprising is your " satisfaction" Industry back ground Cuzco Enterprises Corp was created in February 2002 by a 29 year old novice young man named Fausto Cuzco. Under this parent name, he opened his first store in a small mall in south side Chicago, CUZCO CASUAL WEAR #1. Currently my friend Patricia and I own this store. Sales have been growing steadily with the cost of goods sold consistently decreasing. But to make significant headway in this area, we need to expand our business into new territories. Goals and potential of the new venture Constantly striving to supply what the consumer is asking for, we continually review what is available in the marketplace, and what isn't. Improving on what is available and providing new products and services to the areas of need will assure our success in a market driven by consumer demand.

To what extent have the goals of feminism been achieved?

In simple terms feminism can be defined as the belief in equality between the sexes, based on the idea that gender should not affect a persons social identity, or socio-political or economic rights, and complete equality regardless of actual or perceived sexual orientation or identity. (Wikipedia, 2006) Complete equality between the men and women can be further broken down into three main categories; social, economic and political equality. In my essay I will assess the extent that the goals of each individual category have been accomplished. However as feminism is a very broad doctrine, and some feminists are much more hard line than others, deciding to what extent goals have been achieved is dependent on whose definition of the goals you use. The first area I would like to discuss is that of social equality between men and women. One of feminists' main social aims is to eliminate the double standards that occur between men and women in all aspects of life, varying from women being expected to take maternity leave instead of men, to sexual equality between intimate partners. Ward Crowe 1981) This idea is at the heart of the whole feminist ideology and so is very important, however like almost all-feminist goals, the extent to which it is complete depends on which feminist you speak to. Although this is the case there is little argument between feminists that double standards between the sexes have been reduced dramatically in the last one hundred years, and most would say that this goal has almost been achieved. Another major social goal for the feminist movement is the equal treatment of women in the media, including an end to media and advertising exploitation of women's bodies. This has always been seen as a crucial area by feminists, as sex-role theory states that men and women will mirror the characters they see in the media, meaning that they will continue with sexist stereotypes that are being shown to them. (Craig 1994) As the media is an area that has traditionally been totally dominated by males, they stereotypes used often to be prejudice against women, and even when they weren't, the mere fact that no women read news or did any other presenting jobs left its own sub-conscious message in the populous. Although the feminist movement has been successful in wrestling some of the power away from the predominantly male industry, the media is an area where there is still plenty of work to be done before there goals are complete. Although in the modern world female presenters are considered the norm, and women are not just portrayed as doting mothers, the issue of the media, especially advertising exploiting women's bodies is still huge. In my opinion feminists will find it very hard to change this fact simply because there will always be women willing to do it and it will always increase sales. As I said, I think the feminist movement has managed to improve the treatment of women in the media, but will never be able to find complete equality with men in this arena. Getting rid of the acceptance of misogynist language and derogatory terms for women is another of the feminists' main social goals. This is a difficult area for the feminist movement to make progress because terms that are considered derogatory for women such as, ‘the missus' to refer to ones wife are massively widespread and not considered to be sexist by most of those who use them. Therefore the only way that feminists can try and prevent these terms remaining in everyday language forever is through educational policies. As many of the people who accept this misogynistic language are not interested in being educated against it, it becomes very hard to find a way to change the situation. Having said this, slowly as time goes on and people become more understanding, the situation has been slowly improving although I think only the most liberal feminist would claim that linguistic equality has been anywhere near achieved. The last important social goal that I want to look at is the acceptance of women in history. This is an interesting area, as some feminists don't see it as a major issue, while others reckon it is crucial to establishing total equality between the sexes. As historically the world was based on a much more patriarchal system and men controlled almost all the power, there are few examples of women playing significant roles in history. Whether this is because they didn't have the chance to or because their deeds weren't recorded is the focus of much debate, but most feminists would say it was the second. However even if this is the case it is very hard to give women credit for un-recorded deeds and so feminists have been fighting an up-hill battle to try and get these ladies their recognition. The second main aspect of the feminist ideology is the economic equality of men and women in all areas of their lives, this is crucial to feminism as economic equality moves women away from being stereotyped as house-wives. The first economic goal that I want to look at is the idea of equal pay for equal work. The main thrust of this agenda is the removal off the gap in wages that occurs between men and women doing the same jobs. The removal of this difference, known as the ‘wage-gap' has been one of the major rallying points for the feminist movements as since women entered the work-place they have been paid significantly less than men for the same work. Although the wage gap still occurs today it has been reduced by up to 15% since 1970 according to some estimates (Wellington 1993) and other say it may well disappear entirely within the next ten to fifteen years. Although feminists have not at this point in time eliminated the wage gap, they have managed to reduce it massively and it looks to keep getting smaller, so most feminists would say that this goal is on it way to being completed. Coupled with this idea of equal pay for equal work is another of feminism's main economic goals; equality between the sexes in the hiring promotion and treatment of employees. There are employees who are less willing to hire women as they risk losing them after they have children, and will have to pay for maternity leave. The feminist movement had tried to address this through a series of legislation, which to a certain extent has helped although the problem definitely still occurs. They have encountered similar problems with promotions as although at lower levels promotions of men and women have become a lot less bias than they were in the past at higher levels a ‘glass ceiling' still seems to remain in place. This term refers mainly to the business world where although women can gain promotion up through the company they still seem to find it very hard to reach the very highest levels, and men still massively dominate the boardroom. Although this problem has started being addressed by companies in recent times, removing it further is still one of feminism's main goals. The goal of equal treatment of employees ties in with the idea of lookism, once again especially in the business world. Lookism is the discrimination against people based on the way they look or dress, and although it does occur to men in is mostly a female problem. Although the situation has improved it is still the case that it is much easier for a woman to find employment in the business sector if she is comely. Feminists have been working hard to try and stop this discrimination for example, by eliminating dress codes which could exploit women's bodies. However it is very hard as there are many other factors which could effect employees decision on who to hire, making it almost impossible for feminists to confirm when it has taken place. The third area that feminists have focused on trying to obtain equality is politically, as without this equality in the other two sectors will not make the difference it should. One of the main things that they strive to achieve in this area is that men and women should have equal rights under the law. Although it seems amazing now up until 1918 women were not allowed to vote in Britain, and not until 1928 was the voting age lowered to twenty-one in line with men. (Holten 1986, p134) Since then many more improvements have been made in making the sexes more politically equal, with women allowed to represent in the House of Commons, however hard-line feminists would say that even now we are not politically equal in Britain, as men still dominate the House of Lords. Although in Britain women have succeeded in gaining almost equal political rights, in other parts of the world women are still much more oppressed. In Kuwait for example, the parliament just rejected a bill that would have given women the right to vote and stand in parliament, and so the feminists' have not nearly achieved their worldwide goals. Another major political goal for the feminist movement is that abortions should be legal, accessible and affordable, without parental or spousal consent laws. Feminists feel this is important as they feel all women should have the right to their individual choice whatever the circumstances. In Britain feminists have come some way to achieving these goals, although abortion is still not technically legal, the abortions act of 1967 has made it legally defensible to have an abortion in certain circumstances, and there is much less stigma against abortions than there used to be. However feminists would say much more should be done, feeling that re-cooperation services should be available and that more open law should be put in place. Feminists also believe that women should be allowed to serve in the military as well as men, and that men should not be drafted ahead of women in times of war. Once again in Britain they have come some way to achieving these aims with women now allowed to work in all sectors of the military except the front line. Although feminists try to campaign for this to furthered to include women being allowed to serve in the front-line I do not think this will occur for some time, if ever, as women and men cannot serve in the same units. In other parts of the world, again the political system is less relaxed on this issue, and women are not allowed o hold any positions in the military establishment, so as a goal of feminism it has not come close to being achieved. Overall I think that socially and politically many of the goals of feminism have been achieved, at least to a large extent, whereas economically women are still disadvantaged compared to men, especially in the business sector where many things work against them. However I feel that in Britain, all three areas that feminists are fighting for equality in are improving, and there is no area where the levels of inequality are rising. On a global scale on the other hand the scene is not nearly so positive, with many nations still giving their women no political or economic power and forcing them through social customs to leave education early and follow their mothers into early marriages and house-keeping. In my opinion the feminist movement would be well advised to stop worrying so much about supposed inequality in the West and instead focus their attention on the very real problems faced by women in the third world.

Economic integration in North America †NAFTA Essay

States undergo a lot of challenges and face dilemma in the current globalization era. Globalization has led to the integration of various world economies and this requires openness to the economy of the world, serving the interests of the nations, and competition for relative advantages at national level as international capitalism demands. The evolution of the global economy in the west in the late 1980s and 1990 aroused the desire for competitive advantage among regional trading blocs in the area of trade, finance, manufacturing and technology and this also led to the birth of the North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) (Ciccantell, 2001). NAFTA was formed in 1994 as part of the economic integrationist revival of the period and it marked a significant shift of the U. S. trade policy (Pastor, 2004). NAFTA incorporates the economies of three countries-the U. S. , and Canada in the north and Mexico in the south. According to Cavanagh and Anderson (2002) NAFTA is a complex set made up of trade and non-trade bargain issues which advance North America towards closer ties of economy. This essay gathers information from various economic literatures that discuss the NAFTA formation and implementation process. The central idea is the paradox in which a least developed country, Mexico forms a treaty with the world’s most advanced economies in North America. This relationship is of tremendous interest to economic scholars and observers. Circumstances that led to the formation of NAFTA in the 1994 are evaluated in this essay as well as factors that almost hindered the implementation of the treaty. The essay further evaluates the benefits that NAFTA has on the participating economies. This will be followed by a discussion of the challenges that the implementation of the treaty faces. Possible solutions to overcome the challenges are recommended. An Economic Integration Perspective International economics involves the integration of the economic practices of various countries within a global scale. Economists have described various dimensions of international economic integration and these include trade liberalization in goods, direct foreign investment, trade in services, liberalization of capital flows, free labor movement, environmental protection rules, a World Trade Organization’s (WTO) -managed rule-based system for trade in goods and services, and established intellectual property and patent rules (Ciccantell, 2001). Theoretically, countries can meet these dimensions without resorting to a regionalism model. However, in practical sense, countries meet to regionalize more for political than economic reasons as a way of dealing with the globalization challenge (Fox, 2004). Contrary to this, some scholars recommend that market-orientation factors should be the main drivers of economic integration in the current globalization era (Funk, Elder, Yao & Vibhakar, 2006). Although already established, some economists view NAFTA as an on-going process in which the end product is not yet confirmed. The future of regionalization is mostly determined by domestic and regional factors as opposed to globalization although regional and global forces are responsible for driving North America into closer economic ties. Carranza (2002) asserts that the future of NAFTA depends on the policy makers’ deliberate act as this will determine whether NAFTA will resolve into an institutional deficit or develop into a deeper integration. Circumstances that could have hindered the formation of NAFTA Mexico, which was to be part of the North American economic integration, had first opposed an allied relationship with the northern colossus because of a negative historical experience (Skonieczny, 2006). Mexico had lost almost half of its territory in the 1846 to 1848 Mexican-American war (De la Balze, 2001; Skonieczny, 2006). Secondly, Mexico strived to maintain an independent foreign policy, which sought closer alliances with the South and Central America and the Caribbean (Skonieczny, 2006). According to Carranza (2002), it is still a puzzle as to why Mexico later decided to form an economic partnership with the North America countries from a very weak position. The country also paid a very high domestic political price by agreeing to join the NAFTA. However, the economic situation in Mexico and the labor market was deteriorating, and the political situation was unstable after a negative eventful election in the 1988 (Philip, 2008). The government also featured corrupt and authoritarian episodes. Inflation was hitting the country at a high rate, economic growth was stagnant and living standards were poor. Additionally, Mexico had a significant amount of national debt that was un-payable. Trade liberalization seemed the most political consequential (Faber, 2007). On the other and, there was a looming fear in the US that the economic integration would lead to loss of jobs in the US while in the South there were cries for revolution (Pastor, 2004). Nevertheless, Mexico was eager to access the larger U. S. market despite the observers’ opinion that the U. S. is unlikely to abide by the trade accord (Castaneda, 2008). U. S. had been known of having a poor record in international treaties implementation and its previous treatment towards Mexico in issues like immigration policies left a doubt on Mexico as to whether the country would be left out of the agreement implementation despite their being one (King, 2005). The Central America and Caribbean countries that were allied to Mexico feared that there could be an erosion of the already existing trade preferences if the NAFTA was formed (Baker, 2008). The countries faced the dilemma between free trade in the open regionalism and protectionism. Furthermore critics viewed the formation of NAFTA as a state-led project although the members denounced the classical state intervention mechanisms in bid to soften the globalization effect. The Founding of NAFTA The formation of NAFTA was considered inevitable because of the market and trade conditions in the globalization period that necessitated an economic integration (Baker, 2008). However, the formation process was not smooth-sailing because of the various uncertainties that occurred in the wake of well developed countries wanting to merge their economies with the less developed ones. This was evident in the negotiation process in which there was asymmetry of both political and economic powers and Mexico lacked a non-agreement alternative. The formation of NAFTA also lacked the accompaniment of institutionalization and there lacks a common governance unto which NAFTA can be identified. In Northern America, the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations in the 1990s was progressing slowly and thus this made the regional integration an attractive option (Carranza, 2002). The formation of NAFTA started as a unique regional economic integration process between a less developed country, Mexico in this case; and two industrial powers- the U. S. and Canada (Davidson, 2008). This was the first economic agreement on a regional basis to include various forms of integration. Some of the integrated economic activities cited in most literatures include foreign investments, financial services, government procurement and intellectual property rights. On the contrary, the Uruguay Round global trade negotiations did not feature all of these revival strategies. The U. S. presented NAFTA as a trade liberalization model in the western hemisphere in the early 1990s as a way of continental regionalism. On the other hand, the Latin American countries were not ready to embrace this model because of the doubt they had on the U. S. intention of seeing the agreement through the future. It was easier for the U. S. to control the agenda if the negotiation was on a regional rather than a multilateral level (Hufbauer& Yee, 2003). This would enhance more of the country’s economic, political and institutional perspectives in comparison to the rest of the world. It was paradoxical that the economically successful U. S wanted a free trade agreement with the less developed Mexico. Carranza (2002) asserts that the U. S agreed to negotiate with Mexico about the free trade on condition that Mexico did not invoke any exclusion of key areas such as the area of oil that is sovereign sensitive. On the other hand, Mexico did not have any vital concession to base its negotiations in the status of a developing country. Nevertheless, despite this unequal negotiation ability, Philip (2008) highlights the irony by showing that the process was presented as a negotiation of the equals. NAFTA’s goals, objectives and economic models NAFTA is a trade treaty which aims to eliminate custom duties on transaction between the U. S, Canada and Mexico. NAFTA has formed the world’s largest free trade zone whereby around 406 million people produce more than 11 billion U. S dollars worth of products (Page, 2002). The agreement which establishes NAFTA entails that the U. S, Canada, and Mexico pursue certain common objectives. Trade in services has been liberalized and government procurement markets including construction and services procurement markets have been opened through the NAFTA. Therefore, through the agreement it is illegal for the parties to discriminate between the domestic and foreign producers in the government markets, investments and trading of services (Adikson, Zimmerman, 2004; Diep, 2008). NAFTA’s objectives therefore include eliminating custom barriers and enhancing cross-border trade in products and services (Vaughan, 2004). The treaty is also to guarantee conditions of equitable competition in the free trade area. The treaty strives to improve trilateral cooperation so as to extend the benefits of the agreement. One of the main goals of NAFTA was the need to increase the flows of trade and investment in North America. Consequently, the agreement has succeeded in increasing Mexico’s and Canada’s trade dependence on the U. S. NAFTA also incorporated the less developed Mexico, in order to give the country a chance to prosper by joining the North America economies (Flores & Lankshear, 2000). NAFTA is a widely researched economic phenomenon that occurs as economists try to understand the three NAFTA’s economies models. The gravity model has been used to explain the trade flows as the function of the importer and exporter market size a well as the distance between the two. Funk, et al. (2006) asserts that any extraordinary flows can be accredited to free trade agreements only after the market size and importer-exporter distances have been accounted for in the trade flow process. This has led to some economists showing that NAFTA generally does not have a significant effect on bilateral trade flows although it has the impact on the net trade creating. Benefits of NAFTA to the US, Mexico and Canada The implementation of NAFTA inspired the economists to measure the treaty’s effect on the three NAFTA economies-U. S, Mexico and Canada (Funk et al. , 2006). The North America economic integration was seen as one that would be of benefit to the participating countries. Mexico would have a chance to gain access to the larger U. S. market while the U. S. also searched for new foreign investment opportunities in the country (Carranza, 2002). Proponents of NAFTA view the agreement as detailed and comprehensive and have constantly given the accord praise for showing that less developed countries like Mexico can accept new rules in international politics in this globalization era and thus improve their situation. On the other hand, critics assert that NAFTA lacks basic safeguards to protect the people who are excluded from liberalized trade and investment benefits considering that almost over half of the Mexican population lives below the poverty line (Baker, 2008; Serra, & Espinosa, 2002). The critics further argue that NAFTA is just a mere element of a larger problem; that is, globalization has a disintegrating effect on a mixed economy and the people’s social contract. On a moderate view, critics agree that formation of NAFTA was not a bad idea at all but without regional governance and regional institutions, the agreement remains unfulfilled (Pastor, 2004). Hufbauer and Yee (2003) cites NAFTA as an exemplary agreement for a new or an open regionalism that opens a whole range of novel issues which are designed to prepare the less developed countries of Latin America and Caribbean for the globalization challenge. The issue of why the U. S pulled Mexico into the North integration is very controversial although the positivists assert that the U. S government has a very strong interest in the political and economic stability of Mexico (Skonieczny, 2001). Mexico was able to attract a considerable ratio of foreign direct investment in the 1990s as a result of NAFTA’s negotiations. The predicted economic breakdown of Mexico in the early 1990s never lived to happen as the country underwent economic transformation. Philip (2008) asserts that NAFTA is responsible for the economic and political stability in Mexico. NAFTA has given this chance to Mexico through encouraging trade and investment opportunities. The social progress of the country is also underway and NAFTA aims to eradicate the high poverty levels in most of Mexico’s dwellings. NAFTA also provided the hope for Mexico to transform its worsening economic condition and urban challenges in the City of Mexico (Stracke, 2003). The Mexican government adopted the policies of democratization and free trade policies amidst controversies with the aim of preventing the country from an economic breakdown. Currently, Mexico could not be as developed as the U. S. and Canada for that matter but looking way back in the 1990s to early 200s, it can be said that the country has become macro-economically stable (Philips, 2008). Mexico is among the richest Latin America countries in terms of per capita and has more than twice export per head as compared to Brazil. Exports of manufactured goods from Mexico to the U. S contribute to around 25 percent of Mexico’s gross domestic product and the market is even more liberalized than it was in the years ago. Another benefit of NAFTA to the Mexican economy includes the checking of inflation (Stern, 2007). Although inflation occurs at some instances it does not reach three digits as in the 1990s but securely maintained at single digits. Other areas of the economy that have improved with the economic integration include the education system. The number of Mexicans with degrees from influential world universities has increased and expected to rise. The condition in the Mexican universities has also improved as better preparation of lectures takes place and a fairer democratic environment ensures that there is a stable learning environment. Mexico’s rapturous population growth also slowed down with the implementation of NAFTA as most of the population started migrating North in search for better living conditions. A slower population growth enhances strategic planning and development of the country. However, as much as the evidence of economic transformation is noticeable in Mexico, the economic growth rate is disappointingly low. Philip (2008) and Stern (2007) states that the measurement of economy is determined by oligopolies and specifically Pemex, the state-owned petroleum company in Mexico’s case. Mexico continues to suffer from severe social and urban problems such as high poverty rates, organized crime, drug trafficking, and corruption among others (Stern, 2007). As much as these are domestic problems, it is impossible to separate them from Mexico’s membership to NAFTA because domestic institutions also influence the direction of negotiations in the association (Carranza, 2002). Philip (2008) argues that the U. S is also benefiting from NAFTA because the treaty has enabled the existence of a politically and economically conducive environment that Mexico now offers as compared to the times before the treaty. Flores and Lankshear (2000) assert that the developed North America countries in the treaty could benefit from Mexico’s low wage cuts in the labor force. Mexico large population of semi-skilled workers would provide cheaper and abundant labor for the national and transnational companies that seek low wage work. However, Flores & Lankshear (2000) argue that this dependence on a low wage economy undermines the development of a well educated, Challenges in NAFTA The major challenges facing the NAFTA involve the lack of regional governance, asymmetry negotiations, lack of a stabilized relationship between the North and South American countries and lack of common market policies and common currency. Forces of market and trade integration pushed the economies of the U. S and Mexico together but there was little institutional change that took place to reflect the real degree of economic integration among the countries (Adikson, & Zimmerman, 2004). Economic integration in the north occurred without an established regional institution or governance. It is believed that it will be difficult for the North America decision makers to effectively respond to fluidity, competitiveness, and complexity of the world economy without a form of regional convergence. Lack of regional governance also indicates a lack of a permanent mechanism for consultation among the three governments (Heron, 2002). This proves difficult especially in cases which the countries have to deal with other common challenges like drug peddling and immigration and this sometimes push for a bilateral involvement, for instance between the U. S and Mexico. The lack of common or institutionalized NAFTA governance has led to the in dependent pursuance of other third party treaties by Mexico and Canada (Heron, 2002). NAFTA also promised to create regional barriers to the outsiders so that the insiders would receive relative gains as far as trade and other economic gains are concerned (Flores & Lankshear, 2000). However, Cavanagh and Anderson (2002) argue that NAFTA simply assumed that this would take place magically enabling the people to benefit from the free market policies, and that the three governments-U. S. , Canada, and Mexico-would resolve older and newer problems naturally. However, through the condition in Mexico, it is certain that the agreement has not brought much change to the living standards of the individuals. The country’s record is extremely mixed concerning the free trade policy and the country is yet to unanimously agree on the agreement (Carlsen, 2006). Mexico has not gained the privileges that were promised if the country joined the North America relationship. Mexico did not gain a greater place in the Northern-dominated international institutions such as the International Monetary fund (IMF) or the World Bank. Mexico remains poor and less developed despite being part of the supposedly economic rejuvenator-NAFTA. NAFTA’s negotiations did not consider the economic and development asymmetries between Mexico and the U. S and this also contributed to the exclusion of majority of Mexican population from the free trade benefits (Cox, 2008). NAFTA was supposed to give Mexico a chance to prosper through joining the Northern club. However, the moment Mexico decided to start negotiations with the U. S for a free trade agreement, it was found that Mexico still needed to make other sweeping concessions in order to gain access to the U. S market. Mexico presented an overstaffed and underperforming institutions, an opposite of the North America countries which have the most performing institutions (Flores & Lankshear, 2000). Mexico was forced to make the bigger compromises and adjustments because after all, it was the weaker party. This also shows that majority of the decisions were made by the tremendous powers in the agreement-the U. S, and Canada. This can be proved from an economic angle in which the GDP of the U. S alone forms 90 percent of the total North America economy (Carranza, 2004). It is unrealistic that during negotiations, Mexico would be expected to steer the decision-making process into finality. How does Mexico and Canada establish strategies on how to access the U. S’ over 8 trillion dollar market when all the 2 countries can offer is 250 and 500 billion dollars markets respectively? The Mexican experience has proved that the Southern countries cannot necessarily experience economic development with social justice through seeking alliances with the U. S even in this globalization era. Mexico also undergoes a painful adjustment process because being part of NAFTA; it is forced to compete openly with the far more advanced economies of the North America countries (Cavanagh & Anderson, 2002). NAFTA if implemented strategically can have a voice in the global trade talks. However, the lack of a common governing in institution hinders this representation because it would appear as though one country or the other is representing its own views rather than that of NAFTA. Cavanagh and Anderson (2002) argue that the failure of NAFTA to meet its alleged expectations can be blamed on the current economic conditions. The marketplace is globalized and thus highly mobile employers gain more power to suppress workers who fight for a fair gain of their benefits. However, this remains unchallenged because such firms ally with governments who in turn are desperate for foreign investment. This leads to the suppression of the hoist’s nation’s labor force through low wages and poor working conditions. The unfortunate side is that the agency that is set up under the labor side agreement of NAFTA has proved incapable of holding governments and corporations accountable for violating the rights of workers (Cavanagh & Anderson, 2002). There have been alleged complaints of worker’s rights violations in all of the three NAFTA economies but other than a bit of public exposure, not much justice has been yielded. Lack of common governance is to blame for the loose policy of ensuring that all the parties in the agreement benefit positively. There is also a looming fear that a future Mexican leadership could decide to pull out of the NAFTA’s agreement because of the country’s inconsistent views on NAFTA and the lack of institutionalized rules for the agreement. Recommendations NAFTA took place amidst controversies especially from part of Mexico’s population and the South and Central America countries. Moreover, a supranational institution and an ideal NAFTA identity are lacking. This poses a danger to the stability of the economic integration of the North American countries. North America needs to tackle the gaps in the North-South relationships and also increase aggregate wealth. One way of doing this is through enhancing regional governance through the use of common currency for the member states. However Cavanagh and Anderson (2002) assert that the issue of establishing a common currency can lead to further controversies. First of all, the U. S. and Mexico are not in the same currency zones as compared to the likeability of the U. S. and Canada. This will negatively alienate Mexico further. Still on the issue of a common currency, Carranza (2002) argues that it is certain that the U. S public opinion would not support a monetary union between U. S. and the two countries. The U. S needs to come to terms with having neighboring countries with difficulties in tackling money integration issues and the de facto dollarization of the economy of Mexico. This should also be accompanied with the building of appropriate institutions that would realistically introduce North America as a community of nations. The NAFTA countries need to establish a regional governance system that would ensure that all the member population is fairly treated without prejudice (Carlsen, 2006). Social justice should be enhanced within the NAFTA economies and the established policies should fairly uplift the standards of all the countries (Anderson, 2003). Rather than using the large semi-skilled Mexico’s labor force for cheap, low-wage labor, there should be policies or strategies in which NAFTA can contribute to the establishment of better education and vocational training systems (Ma del Rosio, Camen, & Humberto, 2007). The criticism directed at the treaty will subside if it is observed that the member states are striving to raise the standards and conditions of one another rather than using each other for selfish gains. Conclusion This essay has comprehensively discussed the factors pertaining to the formation and implementation of NAFTA. The North America economic integration awakened the interest of many economic researchers and observers because of the coming together of powerful North America economies and a southern least developed economy. Although the reason for such a relationship was met with criticism and a lot of controversies, proponents viewed it as an opportunity for Mexico to improve its political, economical and social environment. The U. S the most developed North America country viewed the relationship as an opportunity to expand its globalization boundaries as well as create a stable economic and political condition for trade in the region. However, critics believe that it is for the best interest of the U. S while Mexico risks the chance of being sidelined. Nevertheless, Mexico has recorded an economic transformation and it is believed that if policy makers implement some strategic measures in the treaty, then Mexico stands a greater chance of becoming a developed nation. This has provided the U. S with a stable political and economic environment without which the security of the U. S may have been at stake. NAFTA faces various challenges but the lack of regional governance is seen as the source of most of the challenges. NAFTA lacks international identity in contribution of international trade discussions. Additionally, treaty are known to be created where all the participants have an almost equal bargaining power even though they will not be dealing with exchange of similar products or services. However, in this case, the negotiations take an asymmetry approach because Mexico is in a compromised state in which its position does not allow it to challenge the decisions of the U. S. , the most developed economy. As a result, the negotiations are based, on an unequal level. NAFTA leaders especially from the North need to understand the gap between the north and south populations and provide democratic decisions that will be best appreciated by both sides. Economic integration is significant in this global era in which market and trade forces have pushed for market liberalization conditions. List of References Adikson, R. , Zimmerman, L. 2004. â€Å"Retail trade on the US Mexico order during the NAFTA implementation era,† Growth & Change, vol. 35(1): 77-89. Anderson, S. 2003. â€Å"The equity factor and free trade,† World Policy Journal, vol. 20(3): 45-51. Baker, L. 2008. â€Å"Local food networks and maize agrodiversity conservation: Two case studies from Mexico,† Local Environment, vol. 13(3): 235-251. Carlsen, L. 2006. â€Å"Armoring NAFTA: the battleground for Mexico’s future,† NACLA Report on the Americas, vol. 41(5): 17-22 Carranza, M. 2002. â€Å"Neighbors or partners? : NAFTA and the politics of regional economic integration in North America,† Latin American Politics and Society, 44(2): 141-158. Castaneda, J. 2008. â€Å"Morning in Latin America,† Foreign Affairs, 87(5): 126-139 Cavanagh, J. , & Anderson, S. 2002. â€Å"Happily ever NAFTA,† Foreign Policy (132): Cavanagh, J & Anderson, S. 2002. Nice theories, sad realities,† Foreign Policy, (132): 62 Ciccantell, P. 2001. â€Å"NAFTA and the reconstruction of U. S. hegemony: The raw materials foundations of economic competitiveness,† Canadian Journal of Sociology, vol. 26(1):57-87. Cox, R. 2008. â€Å"Transnational capital, the U. S state and Latin American trade agreements,† Third World Quarterly, vol. 29(8): 1527-1544. Davidson, M. 2008. â€Å"On the outskirts of form: Cosmopoetics in the shadow of NAFTA,† Textual Practice. 22(4): 733-756 De la Balze, F. 2001. â€Å"Finding allies in the back yard,† Foreign Affairs, vol. 80(4): 7-12. Diep, K. 2008. â€Å"Wavering amigos,† Harvard International Review, vol. 30(1): 9-10 Faber, B. 2007. â€Å"Towards the spatial patterns of sectoral adjustments to trade liberalization: the case of NAFTA in Mexico,† Growth and Change, vol. 38(4): 567-594.

Blake’s Poetry is multivocal, allusive and intertextual rather than directly expressive

â€Å"Blake's Poetry is multivocal, allusive and intertextual rather than directly expressive; philosophic rather than immediately intelligible.† With this assertion as a point of departure I will present a critical discussion of the two poems, ‘The Lamb' and ‘The Tyger' from ‘Songs of Innocence' and ‘Songs of Experience' respectively, paying attention to both form and content. The two poems offered here from ‘Songs of Innocence' and ‘Songs of Experience' clearly support the statement that Blake's poetry is multivocal, allusive and intertextual. Both ‘The Lamb' and ‘The Tyger' seem to be alluding to certain social norms and perceptions of the time when they were written and the two of them both clearly express different feelings or opinions of the forces at play in the world around us. The two poems are clearly inter-related as they both seem to offer contrasting opinions of the nature of beings and their creators, and because of the direct reference made to the lamb in the poem ‘The Tyger'. Upon closer inspection of the poem ‘The Lamb', we see, in lines 5 to 8, Blake offering an almost serene description of a lamb. Describing the lamb in terms of its tender voice which makes all the vales rejoice, its soft woolly coat being that of delight, and its feeding â€Å"by the stream & o'er the mead† (Watson 1992: 133). Blake uses very soft and mostly monosyllabic words to create a very sombre and tender mood in this poem. The mild tone of the poem adds much to the beauteous image of the lamb that is being created. Throughout the description of the beauty of the lamb the question is also being posed of who created the lamb, as is evident in the opening two lines of the poem â€Å"Little Lamb, who made thee?†/†Dost thou know who made thee?† and by asking who gave the lamb all its beautiful qualities. The second verse of the poem offers an answer to the question of who created the lamb. The creator, God, is alluded to as an answer by saying that he calls himself a lamb and that he became a little child. Watson (1992: 133) presents the facts that â€Å"the God who made the lamb is called a lamb Himself, because He was crucified (‘Worthy is the Lamb that was slain')†, and that â€Å"He became a little child at the incarnation.† Referring to the creator as ‘meek and mild' continues the serene feeling within the poem that was created at the description of the lamb, and adds to the already blissful view of the lamb because of the fact that they share a name. By looking at the social circumstances of the time when this poem was written, a time of great social and political revolution, where views of authority and people's own self-worth were changing, it becomes possible to give an interpretation of the poem ‘The Lamb' based on these social circumstances. The idea of the lamb and the child both having a name that, at different times, were used as a reference to Jesus Christ could be seen as an allusive way of Blake trying to express the fact that all creatures were created in God's own image of himself. This point serves to enhance the fact that all people, animals and other earthly beings all have equal self-worth within the world. So at a time when people were revolting against the Catholic Churches control over them this poem could be seen as an attempt to highlight the fact that all people are equal and deserve to be treated as equals. If God created all living creatures in his perfect image of himself, which is a Christian beli ef, then all people should be granted the same status as each other. In contrast to ‘The Lamb' we find its counterpart from ‘Songs of Experience' – ‘The Tyger'. In this poem, as in ‘The Lamb', there is a question of the â€Å"unseen power behind the tiger† (Watson 1992: 146). The difference behind the questioning in this poem is the mood that the questions create. The mood is not peaceful and serene as it is in ‘The Lamb', but rather the questioning here almost gives the reader a feeling of anger and aghastness at the thought of the same creator who created the lamb creating a creature so fearful as the tiger. The continued use of the word ‘dare' leaves the reader feeling as if the whole creation of the tiger was a shameful act. Lines such as â€Å"On what wings dare he aspire†, â€Å"what the hand, dare seize the fire†, and â€Å"what immortal hand or eye/dare frame thy fearful symmetry† all help to create and complement this feeling. From the following verse the reader is left with the sense that even the stars were angered and upset at the creation of the tiger: When the stars threw down their spears, And water'd heaven with their tears, Did he smile his work to see? Did he who made the lamb make thee? The image of stars throwing their spears and letting their tears fall in heaven, the place where the creator, God, is believed to reside upon, leads perfectly up to the question â€Å"did he smile his work to see?† Here the question is posed as to whether the creator was happy and satisfied at his creation of the tiger. Then, in the very next breath, the question is offered as to whether it is the same creator who created both the lamb and the tiger. Thus leaving the reader thinking how it can possibly be that a divine creator can create two such opposite creatures in this world. Turning back to the social context of the time when the two poems were written it is possible then to read two contrasting lines, one from each poem, as direct metaphors for society itself. Firstly, from ‘The Tyger' – line 2 – â€Å"in the forests of the night†, and secondly, from ‘The Lamb' – line 4 – â€Å"by the stream and o'er the mead†. The possibility exists that Blake was expressing his fear of the existing society in ‘The Tyger' by describing it as a â€Å"forest of the night†, which creates very dark, almost dangerous images of the existing society where one would not find much hope of serenity. The contrasting line from ‘The Lamb', where society can be compared to a stream and a mead can be seen as Blake expressing his hope for society becoming a place as peaceful and beauteous as a stream or a mead. The tiger then can be related to the people who have control over society at this time. Those people who have ‘twisted sinews of the heart' and who's ‘dreaded grasp' instil ‘deadly terrors' into the people who they attempt to control. The revolution then can have its metaphor in ‘The Lamb' where the fears of the people can be replaced by the hope of a life where the ‘vales rejoice' at the ‘softness' and ‘tenderness' of a ‘delightful' life. In ‘The Lamb' Blake is perhaps expressing a child like innocence at the thought of living life in the perfect image that God has created for man. Moving on to ‘The Tyger' Blake might be showing us that with experience our views of the world around us and the way that we exist within it are much harsher than what a child would dream it to be. These two poems are both written in the form of a lyric and are done so in order for Blake to express his immediate thoughts and feelings at a specific point in time. The fairly short length of the poems and the simple rhyming schemes, coupled with the contrasting choice of words in each respective poem add to the immediate effect of the feelings, images and moods created within the poems. The inter-relatedness of the two poems gives the reader a very complete feeling of the mood surrounding the time when they were written. Blake's poetry is clearly philosophic in all concerns and cannot be seen as directly expressive or immediately intelligible. The allusiveness and inter-relatedness of his poetry is clearly expressed in the two poems ‘The Lamb' and ‘the Tyger' form ‘Songs of Innocence' and ‘Songs of Experience' respectively. These two poems present two contrasting views of a world and a creator that we are all inextricably tied to but all experience under different social and political conditions and are all able to understand and experience completely differently.

Management: Organizational Behavior Study Guide

MGT 341 Exam II Study Guide 1. Power (Article and Book) a. Meaning of Power – â€Å"The ability to influence various outcomes: or The ability to â€Å"make things happen† or â€Å"get things done† i. Individuals/Groups are presumed to have power based on the following factors: * Ability to cope with Uncertainty * Substitutability – the lower the substitutability the greater the power. * Organizational Centrality – the more central a person/group is to an organization; the greater the power. Role and Task Interdependence – if the activities of a person/group depend on the activities of another person/group -> the latter is considered to have greater control or power. b. Relationship of Power to Authority – Power and Authority are closely related to the concept of leadership. ii. Authority – Situations in which a person/group has been formally granted a leadership position. iii. Legitimate Power – formerly sanctioned by or ganization (Contractual) or informally supported by individual/group (Consensual). iv.Executive / Managerial Power – directed towards creating and maintaining an active organization – ideal of transforming the organization to it’s highest potential. c. Appointed vs. Emergent Leaders (Formal vs. Informal) d. Types of Power: Yellow = Position Power Red = Personal Power Positional Power – Organization * Appointed leaders / formal power – **Most Common Form of Power** * Easily controlled by the organization. * Attributed to the Position rather than the individual. * Appointed from upper level management. 1.Reward Power – The extent to which a person controls rewards another person values (Can give people things they want; satisfy needs). 2. Legitimate Power – Power granted by virtue of one’s position. 3. Coercive Power – The extent to which a person can punish or physically/psychologically harm someone else (do bad things to a person). Personal Power – Personal/Individual – Emergent (i. e. as the individual becomes acclimated to the environment they may â€Å"emerge† professionally or when there is a group that does not have an apparent leader figure, one will â€Å"emerge† naturally. Attributed to the Individual rather than the organization. * Not easily influenced by the organization. * Influence is â€Å"earned† or gained after â€Å"proving ones self. † Expert Power – The extent to which a person controls rewards another person values. (Can give people things they want; satisfy needs). 1. Referent Power – Exists when one person wants to be like someone else r imitates someone else. (based on admiration and respect). e. Situational Variables that can provide power. v. Ability to cope with uncertainty vi.Substitutability – The extent to which someone else in the organization can â€Å"Substitute† for someone else. (The lower the su bstitutability the greater the power). vii. Organizational Centrality – the more central a person is to the task or processes of the organization, the greater the power. viii. Role and Take Interdependence – If the activities of a person or group are dependent on that of another person/group > the latter has the power. f. Leadership Motive Syndrome – The need for power must be greater than the need for affiliation.Must refrain from being perceived as Impulsive, Coercive, or Manipulative. g. Acceptance Theory – manager's authority is derived from subordinates' acceptance, instead of the hierarchical power structure of the organization h. Power Gap – Difference between formal positional power granted and the actual power required to accomplish goals. ix. How to â€Å"Fill the Gap† > * Acquiring Information & Ideas * Assess Who has Power * Good Relationships * Interpersonal Skills * Networks (power building tool) * Create Valued Agendas Image & Track Record 2. Leadership: i. Trait Approaches: x. Focus –Early approaches focused on those personal characteristics and attributes- physical, mental, and cultural. The research is often termed the â€Å"Great Person† theory of leadership (it was assumed leaders were different from average people based on personality and physical characteristics) â€Å"leaders are born, not made†. 5 personal characteristics seemed related to effective leadership: intelligence, dominance, self-confidence, high levels of energy and activity, and task-relevant knowledge. i. Problems – Relationship between these characteristics and evidence of effective leadership is not particularly strong. In the case of each characteristic, there have been significant studies that have either not shown any relationship with effective leadership or found a negative relationship. Thus, provides an incomplete picture of leadership xii. Reemergence of Interest – reemerged as a promisi ng research area, especially in terms of examining specific traits related to the effectiveness/success in different organizational settings.Studies from the 80’s and 90’s suggest there are a number of traits that do contribute to effective leadership: Drive, leadership motivation, honesty and integrity, self-confidence, resonance, cognitive ability and knowledge of the business. Alone, these do not guarantee leadership success, but they can help for success. xiii. Key Dimensions for â€Å"Magic† or Charismatic Leadership – 3 key dimensions are envisioning, energizing and enabling. â€Å"Natural Leaders†, energize-inspire, envisioning-create & communicate image, enabling- enable other people * Linking to Results – Finding the correct quality that gives you positive results.The results should be balanced, strategic, lasting, and selfless. This link between attributes and results enriches our understanding of the relationship between leader tr aits and leadership effectiveness j. Behavioral Approaches: Focused on the various behavioral patterns or styles used by different leaders and the functions fulfilled by these individuals. xiv. Democratic – Leading through group input and decision making. xv. Autocratic – Leading by command xvi. Laissez-faire-Leading through minimal participation by the leader and allowance of total group freedom xvii. University of Michigan Studies – Research into behavioral aspects of leadership. Were concerned with two different leader orientations: one toward employees and the other toward production. The results suggested that a strong orientation to production resembled the autocratic leadership style, while a strong employee orientation was indicative of the democratic leadership style. xviii. *Ohio State Studies – Similar to Michigan studies. Two basic factors derived: initiating structure and consideration for others.See pages 214-215 xix. *Managerial Grid > Conc ern for people and production, uses 5 sections on grid, want managers to be a 9,9. Most popular Concern for People Concern for People Concern for Results (1,1) = LCP & LCR, (1,9) = HFP & LCR, (9,9) = HCP & HCR, (9,1) = HCR & LCP. 1,9| | 9,9| | 5,5| | | | | 1,1| | 9,1| * Based on a â€Å"Concern for People† & â€Å" Concern for Production† * Includes Motivation xx. Likert’s Linking Pin & System 4 ideas Likert found that the Traditional View of management (close supervision/high structure) only PARTLY explained the roles of managers. * Believed that managers are members of (2) different workgroups 1. Person is responsible FOR. > Subordinates 2. Person is responsible TO (Traditional View of Supervision). > Leaders * Power comes from the ability to excerpt power Upward and Lateral (Peer Managers) * (2) Elements must be looked at: i. Task Component ii. Human Component * Approach consists of Integrated Workgroups. * Managers are members of multiple Workgroups. xi. Sys tem 4- (participative)- supervisors trust their subordinates and goal setting and decision making are collaborative activities. k. Contingency Approaches – This perspective suggests that there is no â€Å"one best way† to lead in all situations; rather, the most effective style of leadership is contingent or dependent on the situation. Contingency theories combine the trait approach and the behavioral /functional theories to suggest the most effective leaders are those individuals who can adapt their styles to the demands of a situation, group, or values xxii.Situational Leadership – (Life-Cycle Theory of Leadership) pg 225 xxiii. Path-Goal Model – The leader affects subordinates’ performance by clarifying the behaviors (paths) that will lead to desired rewards (goals). Types of leader behaviors: directive, supportive, participative, achievement-oriented. Situational factor which influence how leader behavior relates to subordinate satisfaction: pe rsonal characteristics of the subordinates, characteristics of environment. xxiv.Vroom-Yetton Leadership-Participation Model – pg 227 xxv. Executive Coaching – Private meeting to discuss and work on personal learning and development issues. Feedback coaching (consultant)- giving feedback and assisting person in developing an action plan to address need or problems that are observed (360 feedback; 1-6 months, not too intensive) In-depth coaching (counselor)- closer, intimate relationship, multiple assessments and discussion extensively used to develop interpersonal skills, etc. 6-12 months+) Content coaching (tutor)- provide leader with knowledge and skills for specific area (IT, acquisitions, globalization, etc. ; time varies, but relatively short) l. 4. Substitutes for Leadership – Leadership substitutes: individual, task, and organizational characteristics that tend to outweigh the leader’s ability to affect subordinates satisfactions and performance. L eadership neutralizers: factors that render ineffective leaders attempts to engage in various leadership behaviors. m.Empowerment – Emphasizes a move away from leader dominance and expert problem solving to a system where organizational members, as the new experts, are continuously involved in organizational decision processes. Tannenbaum & Schmidt Leader Continuum pg 236. Keys to empowerment: 1- important for employees to have information on organizational performance and outcomes. 2-individuals must be rewarded for their contributions to organization performance. 3-team members must be provided with knowledge/skills that enables them to understand and contribute to performance. -individuals must be given the power to make to make decisions that influence work procedures and organizational direction. n. Transactional vs. Transformational Leadership. Transactional Leader- Leader-follower relation one of exchange; narrow view; supervision and â€Å"normal† leaders (mana gers) Transformational Leader(charismatic)- Visionary, inspirational figure; ability to articulate & communicate vision and charisma to energize and motivate people; strong empathy skills and accurate perception of others; â€Å"change† leaders. dark side†- transformational or â€Å"magic† leaders may become captivated by their vision of what’s best and their vision may not be appropriate. Focus on what they want to hear, do not learn easily from those around them and may damage organizational performance. i. e. cults and Hitler. Characteristics of narcissistic leaders- 1. Rely on manipulation and exploitation. 2. Impulsive and unconventional behavior. 3. Excessive impression management. 4. Poor administrative practices. 5. Unable to recognize flawed vision. 6. Fail to plan for succession.These can be quite destructive. o. Gender Issues – Stereotypes, Research Findings, â€Å"Glass Ceiling†, Relation to International Expansion Stereotypes inc lude â€Å"masculine† characteristics are managerial, â€Å"feminine† unmanagerial. Research- Men & women with high needs for power tend to have quite similar characteristics Reasons more women not in power & leadership positions mostly â€Å"institutional sexism† (glass ceiling) Many components important to international success are â€Å"feminine†- relationship development, communication, social sensitivity (&empowerment) p.Categories of Leadership â€Å"Talents† Direction- vision, concepts, & focus Drive to Execute- achieve, compete, active, ego drive Relationships- relater, developer, networks, stimulate good feelings, team oriented Management systems- performance orientation, disciplined, arranger, strategic thinker 3. Intragroup Dynamics (ESSAY QUESTIONS) q. Reasons Groups Form- Security and need satisfaction, social need satisfaction, esteem need satisfaction, proximity and attraction, group goals, economic reason. Groups are there for a rea son. . Types of Groups – Formal vs. Informal; Heterogeneous & Homogeneous Formal- are those that have established task-oriented goals and are explicitly formed as part of the organization- such as work groups, departments, and project teams. Rational, identifiable, exist to serve organization. Informal- are those that emerge over time through the interaction of organizational members. Don’t have formally assigned or stated goals, they do have implied or implicit goals, which are frequently recreational and interpersonal in nature.Formal vs. informal- a rough distinction between these types of groups is that formal groups are represented on an organization chart, while informal (self-enacted) groups are not. Homogeneous- a group whose members have key aspects in common, in terms of either personal (e. g. attitudes, values, goals) or sociodemographic (e. g. education, age, gender, race) characteristics. Heterogeneous- groups are those that differ along significant dimens ions. s. Stages of Group DevelopmentForming- group member will find out what they will be doing, the kind of leadership and behaviors that are acceptable, and the range of interpersonal and task relationships that are possible. Typically confusion, caution. Storming- described as the â€Å"shakedown†, where individual styles come into conflict. Characterized by tension, criticism, and confrontation among members. Constructive conflict can occur. Norming- resistance is overcome as the group establishes its rules/roles and standards. Develops intragroup cohesiveness, delineates (outlines) task standards and expectations.This phase is marked by cooperation, collaboration, cohesion, and commitment . Performing- Accomplish tasks. Typical characteristics include challenge, creativity, group consciousness, and consideration among members. Adjourning/reforming- Closure (celebrate, rewards). Group members must either reassess their mission, roles, and processes or prepare for dissolut ion of the group. t. Group Attributes: xxvi. Individual & Group Status- status refers to the level/position of a person in the group or a group in an organization. Status differences. xxvii.Roles – Meaning, Conflict, Ambiguity: Role refers to the various behaviors people expect from a person or a group in a particular position. Role Conflict is playing several roles that elicit certain expectations that often contradict one another. Role Ambiguity refers to when one receives unclear or ambiguous signals about what is expected of us in a particular role. xxviii. Social Identity Theory – how group affects people-:Group membership affects members’ sense of who they are, how they see themselves, how they feel about themselves and how they act in a group, they become what others expect them to be. xix. Norms – What are they; Pivotal vs. Peripheral: are the common standards or ideas that guide member behavior in established groups. Pivotal norms are those that are considered to be particularly important to the group/organization. Peripheral norms in contrast are those that are not as important to group members xxx. Status and Conformity – Relationships, Expedient vs. Private: Desire to be accepted by the group, making individuals susceptible to conformity effects. They feel pressure to change their attitudes and behaviors to conform to the groups norms or operative standards.Expedient conformity is when a group member expresses attitudes and engages in behaviors that are acceptable to the group, while holding his private beliefs that are at odds with the group. Private acceptance is when an individual’s public and private attitudes and beliefs are compatible with the groups norms.. xxxi. Cohesiveness – What it means, Factors that lead to it, Impact on people, Electronic or Virtual Groups: Cohesiveness refers to the degree to which group members are attracted to one another and the resulting desire to remain in the gro up.Factors that lead to cohesiveness include mutual attraction amongst group members, similar views, attitudes, likings, performance, and behavior. Impact on people: intergroup conflict pulls members together and encourages cooperation, such conflict may become too powerful leading to intragroup competition that reduces cohesiveness. Electronic or virtual groups can become cohesive xxxii. Group (Org) Commitment – Meaning, Affective vs. Continuance; Free Agents.Group (org) commitment is the relative strength of individual group members feelings of identification with an attachment to a groups goals or tasks. Affective(emotionally attached) commitment means they maintain a relationship because they want to have high levels of group organization comfort and job challenge. Continuance commitment means they maintain a relationship because they have concerns about potential loss of pension, benefits, and a lack of other alternatives. *do it because they have to. xxxiii. Social Loaf ing – Meaning, How Common, How to deal with it. Reduced efforts of an individual group member when they perform as part of a group compared to individual efforts. â€Å"I wont work hard because someone else in the group will pick up slack†. More common in large groups. To deal with it make sure that group members understand the importance of their assignment as well as the mechanisms for group and individual accountability encouraging active participation. u. Lost Moon Exercise – v. Groupthink – This is a dynamic that diminishes the decision making capability of a group, try’s to minimize conflict and reach a consensus.Symptoms of group think include illusion to invulnerability, collective efforts to rationalize/discount warnings, not questioning the group, stereotyped views of â€Å"enemy† leaders, pressuring members, self-censorship of deviations, illusion of unanimity, self-appointed â€Å"mind-guards†(mind-gaurds withhold informat ion from a group to keep it in tact). How to guard against Everyone be a critical evaluator, somebody play devil’s advocate, be impartial, critical thinking, take time to study external factors. w.Choice-Shift – (group polarization) occurs when the average of the group members post-discussion attitudes tends to be more extreme than average prediscussion attitudes, generally happens when everyone is already leaning in one direction, may become more extreme during virtual groups x. Brainstorming, Nominal Group & Delphi Techniques – basically â€Å"How† they operate, Role of Electronic Communications. Brainstorming-trying to expand by getting many different interacting groups and different ideas from each group Nominal group technique: no criticizing no talking to eachother or evaluating.Do evaluation, ask everyone ideas, then rank (top to bottom) confidentially and independently, then mathematically pool them. You are trying to get everyone’s opinion without people criticizing them. Delphi technique: smaller group, completely anonymous (no one knows anybody). Has one mediator. Give them each the problem and they come up with their own answers/ideas and then exchange ideas/answers with everyone else and everybody comments on eachothers ideas. Repeat the process until you come up with a general consensus. 4. Organizational Socialization: y.Meaning – A process of adaption during which entrants learn the values, norms, expectations, and established procedures for assuming a particular role and for becoming an accepted member of the group or organization z. Purpose –For new members it reduces role ambiguity and increases feeling of security since group expectations are clarified. For the group or organization the socialization process creates more behavioral uniformity among its members, thereby developing a basis for understanding and collaboration and reducing potential group conflict. . Stages – What they are ; Sequence, & What goes on in each? 3 Stages: Anticipatory socialization- can be thought of as preliminary/prepatory stage during which time a person should be provided with realistic view of organizational goals and expectations, what the persons duties/responsibilities are, and the necessary task-related skills and abilities. Entrants can assess the fit between their values and needs of organizations. Organizational or group encounter- newcomer actually joins the group or organization.Initiation period during which individual needs to balance personal and work-related demands that may conflict with one another, while simultaneously learning new tasks, clarifying role expectations and becoming acquainted with peers. Acquisition of group norms and values- If successfully accomplished, newcomer feels apart of group and becomes accepted |. Effects of Socialization on Performance-a process of adaption during which newcomers learn the values, norms, expectations for assuming a particula r role and becoming a member of an organization.It helps the group become more effective. }. Realistic Job Previews- People entering into an organization need to know what to expect with their jobs so they can prepare to cope effectively with work related pressures and demands. ~. Mentoring – Individual and Group Group mentoring- Group influence that emerges from its norms and roles provide a greater sense of phsychological support for newcomers, facilitates their inclusion and sense of belonging. Individual mentoring- Having someone with high regard/respect help coach and guide you and help you out.